Graphing California Electricity Supply using ggplot2 during record temperatures 9/05/2022 - 09/09/2022
Raw data from CA ISO. Data is available in 5 minute increments for each 24 hour period.
R LightGBM Regression
In previous posts, I used popular machine learning algorithms to fit models to best predict MPG using the cars_19 dataset which is a dataset I created from publicly available data from the Environmental Protection Agency. It was discovered that support vector machine was clearly the winner in predicting MPG and SVM produces models with the lowest RMSE. In this post I am going to use LightGBM to build a predictive model and compare the RMSE to the other models.
The raw data is located on the EPA government site.
Similar to the other models, the variables/features I am using are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve. The LightGBM package does not handle factors so I will have to transform them into dummy variables. After creating the dummy variables, I will be using 33 input variables.
str(cars_19)
'data.frame': 1253 obs. of 12 variables:
$ fuel_economy_combined: int 21 28 21 26 28 11 15 18 17 15 ...
$ eng_disp : num 3.5 1.8 4 2 2 8 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 ...
$ num_cyl : int 6 4 8 4 4 16 8 8 8 8 ...
$ transmission : Factor w/ 7 levels "A","AM","AMS",..: 3 2 6 3 6 3 6 6 6 5 ...
$ num_gears : int 9 6 8 7 8 7 8 8 8 7 ...
$ air_aspired_method : Factor w/ 5 levels "Naturally Aspirated",..: 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 1 3 3 ...
$ regen_brake : Factor w/ 3 levels "","Electrical Regen Brake",..: 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
$ batt_capacity_ah : num 4.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...
$ drive : Factor w/ 5 levels "2-Wheel Drive, Front",..: 4 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 ...
$ fuel_type : Factor w/ 5 levels "Diesel, ultra low sulfur (15 ppm, maximum)",..: 4 3 3 5 3 4 4 4 4 4 ...
$ cyl_deactivate : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 ...
$ variable_valve : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ...
One of the biggest challenges with this dataset is it is small to be running machine learning models on. The train data set is 939 rows and the test data set is only 314 rows. In an ideal situation there would be more data, but this is real data and all data that is available.
After getting a working model and performing trial and error exploratory analysis to estimate the hyperparameters, I am going to run a grid search using:
max_depth
num_leaves
num_iterations
early_stopping_rounds
learning_rate
As a general rule of thumb num_leaves = 2^(max_depth) and num leaves and max_depth need to be tuned together to prevent overfitting. Solving for max_depth:
max_depth = round(log(num_leaves) / log(2),0)This is just a guideline, I found values for both hyperparameters higher than the final hyper_grid below caused the model to overfit.
After running a few grid searches, the final hyper_grid I am looking to optimize (minimize RMSE) is 4950 rows. This runs fairly quickly on a Mac mini with the M1 processor and 16 GB RAM making use of the early_stopping_rounds parameter.
#grid search
#create hyperparameter grid
num_leaves =seq(20,28,1)
max_depth = round(log(num_leaves) / log(2),0)
num_iterations = seq(200,400,50)
early_stopping_rounds = round(num_iterations * .1,0)
hyper_grid <- expand.grid(max_depth = max_depth,
num_leaves =num_leaves,
num_iterations = num_iterations,
early_stopping_rounds=early_stopping_rounds,
learning_rate = seq(.45, .50, .005))
hyper_grid <- unique(hyper_grid)for (j in 1:nrow(hyper_grid)) {
set.seed(123)
light_gbn_tuned <- lgb.train(
params = list(
objective = "regression",
metric = "l2",
max_depth = hyper_grid$max_depth[j],
num_leaves =hyper_grid$num_leaves[j],
num_iterations = hyper_grid$num_iterations[j],
early_stopping_rounds=hyper_grid$early_stopping_rounds[j],
learning_rate = hyper_grid$learning_rate[j]
#feature_fraction = .9
),
valids = list(test = test_lgb),
data = train_lgb
)
yhat_fit_tuned <- predict(light_gbn_tuned,train[,2:34])
yhat_predict_tuned <- predict(light_gbn_tuned,test[,2:34])
rmse_fit[j] <- RMSE(y_train,yhat_fit_tuned)
rmse_predict[j] <- RMSE(y_test,yhat_predict_tuned)
cat(j, "\n")
}
set.seed(123)
light_gbn_final <- lgb.train(
params = list(
objective = "regression",
metric = "l2",
max_depth = 4,
num_leaves =23,
num_iterations = 400,
early_stopping_rounds=40,
learning_rate = .48
#feature_fraction = .8
),
valids = list(test = test_lgb),
data = train_lgb
)
Results are a minimal improvement over XGBoost.
postResample(y_test,yhat_predict_final)
RMSE Rsquared MAE
1.7031942 0.9016161 1.2326575
75% of the predictions are within 1 standard error of actual, 95% are within 2 standard errors of actual
50% of the predictions are within +- 1 MPG of the actual.
The largest residual in the predicted data is a Hyundai Ioniq which is a very unique data point vs it's peers which explains the RMSE of 1.7 vs MAE of 1.233.
sum(abs(r) <= rmse_predict_final) / length(y_test) #[1] 0.7547771
[1] 0.7547771
> sum(abs(r) <= 2 * rmse_predict_final) / length(y_test) #[1] 0.9522293
[1] 0.9522293
>
> summary(r)
Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max.
-11.21159 -0.96398 0.06337 -0.02708 0.96796 5.77861
Comparison of RMSE:
svm = .93
lightGBM = 1.7
XGBoost = 1.74
gradient boosting = 1.8
random forest = 1.9
neural network = 2.06
decision tree = 2.49
mlr = 2.6
R XGBoost Regression
In the previous posts, I used popular machine learning algorithms to fit models to best predict MPG using the cars_19 dataset. It was discovered that support vector machine produced the lowest RMSE. In this post I am going to use XGBoost to build a predictive model and compare the RMSE to the other models.
Similar to the other models, the variables/features I am using are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve. Unlike the other models, the XGBoost package does not handle factors so I will have to transform them into dummy variables. After creating the dummy variables, I will be using 33 input variables.
str(cars_19)
'data.frame': 1253 obs. of 12 variables:
$ fuel_economy_combined: int 21 28 21 26 28 11 15 18 17 15 ...
$ eng_disp : num 3.5 1.8 4 2 2 8 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 ...
$ num_cyl : int 6 4 8 4 4 16 8 8 8 8 ...
$ transmission : Factor w/ 7 levels "A","AM","AMS",..: 3 2 6 3 6 3 6 6 6 5 ...
$ num_gears : int 9 6 8 7 8 7 8 8 8 7 ...
$ air_aspired_method : Factor w/ 5 levels "Naturally Aspirated",..: 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 1 3 3 ...
$ regen_brake : Factor w/ 3 levels "","Electrical Regen Brake",..: 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
$ batt_capacity_ah : num 4.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...
$ drive : Factor w/ 5 levels "2-Wheel Drive, Front",..: 4 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 ...
$ fuel_type : Factor w/ 5 levels "Diesel, ultra low sulfur (15 ppm, maximum)",..: 4 3 3 5 3 4 4 4 4 4 ...
$ cyl_deactivate : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 ...
$ variable_valve : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ...
After getting a working model and performing trial and error exploratory analysis to estimate the eta and tree depth hyperparameters, I am going to run a grid search. I am going to run 64 XGBoost models
#create hyperparameter grid
hyper_grid <- expand.grid(max_depth = seq(3, 6, 1), eta = seq(.2, .35, .01))
Using a for loop and a 5 fold CV
for (j in 1:nrow(hyper_grid)) {
set.seed(123)
m_xgb_untuned <- xgb.cv(
data = train[, 2:34],
label = train[, 1],
nrounds = 1000,
objective = "reg:squarederror",
early_stopping_rounds = 3,
nfold = 5,
max_depth = hyper_grid$max_depth[j],
eta = hyper_grid$eta[j]
)
xgb_train_rmse[j] <- m_xgb_untuned$evaluation_log$train_rmse_mean[m_xgb_untuned$best_iteration]
xgb_test_rmse[j] <- m_xgb_untuned$evaluation_log$test_rmse_mean[m_xgb_untuned$best_iteration]
cat(j, "\n")
} ETA of .25 and max tree depth of 6 produces the model with the lowest test RMSE
I am going to run this combination below:
m1_xgb <-
xgboost(
data = train[, 2:34],
label = train[, 1],
nrounds = 1000,
objective = "reg:squarederror",
early_stopping_rounds = 3,
max_depth = 6,
eta = .25
) RMSE Rsquared MAE
1.7374 0.8998 1.231
Graph of features that are most explanatory:
Graph of first 3 trees:
Residuals:
Fit:
Comparison of RMSE:
svm = .93
XGBoost = 1.74
gradient boosting = 1.8
random forest = 1.9
neural network = 2.06
decision tree = 2.49
mlr = 2.6R Robustreg Package Downloads
I built robustreg in 2006 and at the time the major stat packages did not have a robust regression available. Below are graphs of weekly and cumulative downloads from just the RStudio mirror. I would estimate total downloads at over 150,000.
The median_rcpp() function is written in C++ and is multiple times faster than the R base function median().
The median_rcpp() function is written in C++ and is multiple times faster than the R base function median().
> r_norm<- rnorm(1000000) > system.time(median(r_norm))
user system elapsed
0.040 0.004 0.044
> system.time(median_rcpp(r_norm))
user system elapsed
0.011 0.000 0.011 > median(r_norm)
[1] -0.001214243
> median_rcpp(r_norm)
[1] -0.001214243
R TensorFlow Deep Neural Network
In the previous post I fitted a neural network to the cars_19 dataset using the neuralnet package. In this post I am going to use TensorFlow to fit a deep neural network using the same data.
The main difference between the neuralnet package and TensorFlow is TensorFlow uses the adagrad optimizer by default whereas neuralnet uses rprop+ Adagrad is a modified stochastic gradient descent optimizer with a per-parameter learning rate.
The data which is all 2019 vehicles which are non pure electric (1253 vehicles) are summarized in previous posts below.
To prepare the data to fit the neural network, TensorFlow requires categorical variables to be converted into a dense representation by using the column_embedding() function.
Similar to the neural network I fitted using neuralnet(), I am going to use two hidden layers with seven and three neurons respectively.
Train, evaluate, and predict:
The results are similar to the other models and neuralnet().
I am going to look at the error rate in TensorBoard which is a visualization tool. TensorBoard is great for visualizing TensorFlow graphs and for plotting quantitative metrics about the execution of the graph. Below is the mean squared error at each iteration. It stabilizes fairly quickly. Next post I will get into TensorBoard in a lot more depth.
The main difference between the neuralnet package and TensorFlow is TensorFlow uses the adagrad optimizer by default whereas neuralnet uses rprop+ Adagrad is a modified stochastic gradient descent optimizer with a per-parameter learning rate.
The data which is all 2019 vehicles which are non pure electric (1253 vehicles) are summarized in previous posts below.
str(cars_19)
'data.frame': 1253 obs. of 12 variables:
$ fuel_economy_combined: int 21 28 21 26 28 11 15 18 17 15 ...
$ eng_disp : num 3.5 1.8 4 2 2 8 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 ...
$ num_cyl : int 6 4 8 4 4 16 8 8 8 8 ...
$ transmission : Factor w/ 7 levels "A","AM","AMS",..: 3 2 6 3 6 3 6 6 6 5 ...
$ num_gears : int 9 6 8 7 8 7 8 8 8 7 ...
$ air_aspired_method : Factor w/ 5 levels "Naturally Aspirated",..: 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 1 3 3 ...
$ regen_brake : Factor w/ 3 levels "","Electrical Regen Brake",..: 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
$ batt_capacity_ah : num 4.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...
$ drive : Factor w/ 5 levels "2-Wheel Drive, Front",..: 4 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 ...
$ fuel_type : Factor w/ 5 levels "Diesel, ultra low sulfur (15 ppm, maximum)",..: 4 3 3 5 3 4 4 4 4 4 ...
$ cyl_deactivate : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 ...
$ variable_valve : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ...
To prepare the data to fit the neural network, TensorFlow requires categorical variables to be converted into a dense representation by using the column_embedding() function.
cols <- feature_columns(
column_numeric(colnames(cars_19[c(2, 3, 5, 8)])),
column_embedding(column_categorical_with_identity("transmission", num_buckets = 7),dimension = 1),
column_embedding(column_categorical_with_identity("air_aspired_method", num_buckets = 5),dimension=1),
column_embedding(column_categorical_with_identity("regen_brake", num_buckets = 3),dimension=1),
column_embedding(column_categorical_with_identity("drive", num_buckets = 5),dimension=1),
column_embedding(column_categorical_with_identity("fuel_type", num_buckets = 5),dimension=1),
column_embedding(column_categorical_with_identity("cyl_deactivate", num_buckets = 2),dimension=1),
column_embedding(column_categorical_with_identity("variable_valve", num_buckets = 2),dimension=1)
)
Similar to the neural network I fitted using neuralnet(), I am going to use two hidden layers with seven and three neurons respectively.
Train, evaluate, and predict:
#Create a deep neural network (DNN) estimator.
model <- dnn_regressor(hidden_units=c(7,3),feature_columns = cols)
set.seed(123)
indices <- sample(1:nrow(cars_19), size = 0.75 * nrow(cars_19))
train <- cars_19[indices, ]
test <- cars_19[-indices, ]
#train model
model %>% train(cars_19_input_fn(train, num_epochs = 1000))
#evaluate model
model %>% evaluate(cars_19_input_fn(test))
#predict
yhat <- model %>% predict(cars_19_input_fn(test))
yhat <- unlist(yhat)
y <- test$fuel_economy_combined
postResample(yhat, y)
RMSE Rsquared MAE
1.9640173 0.8700275 1.4838347
The results are similar to the other models and neuralnet().
I am going to look at the error rate in TensorBoard which is a visualization tool. TensorBoard is great for visualizing TensorFlow graphs and for plotting quantitative metrics about the execution of the graph. Below is the mean squared error at each iteration. It stabilizes fairly quickly. Next post I will get into TensorBoard in a lot more depth.
R Neural Network
In the previous four posts I have used multiple linear regression, decision trees, random forest, gradient boosting, and support vector machine to predict MPG for 2019 vehicles. It was determined that svm produced the best model. In this post I am going to use the neuralnet package to fit a neural network to the cars_19 dataset.
The raw data is located on the EPA government site.
Similar to the other models, the variables/features I am using are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve. Unlike the other models, the neuralnet package does not handle factors so I will have to transform them into dummy variables. After creating the dummy variables, I will be using 33 input variables.
The data which is all 2019 vehicles which are non pure electric (1253 vehicles) are summarized in previous posts below.
First I need to normalize all the non-factor data and will use the min max method:
Neuralnet will not accept a formula like fuel_economy_combined ~. so I need to write out the full model.
Next I need to transform all of the factor variables into binary dummy variables.
I am going to use the geometric pyramid rule to determine the amount of hidden layers and neurons for each layer. The general rule of thumb is if the data is linearly separable, use one hidden layer and if it is non-linear use two hidden layers. I am going to use two hidden layers as I already know the non-linear svm produced the best model.
This suggests I use two hidden layers with 9 neurons in the first layer and 3 neurons in the second layer. I originally fit the model with this combination but it turned out to overfit. As this is just a suggestion, I found that two hidden layers with 7 and 3 neurons respectively produced the best neural network that did not overfit.
Now I am going to fit a neural network:
I am going to run a 20 fold cross validation to estimate error better as these results are dependent on sample and initialization of the neural network.
The neural network produces a RMSE of 2.06.
The raw data is located on the EPA government site.
Similar to the other models, the variables/features I am using are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve. Unlike the other models, the neuralnet package does not handle factors so I will have to transform them into dummy variables. After creating the dummy variables, I will be using 33 input variables.
The data which is all 2019 vehicles which are non pure electric (1253 vehicles) are summarized in previous posts below.
str(cars_19)
'data.frame': 1253 obs. of 12 variables:
$ fuel_economy_combined: int 21 28 21 26 28 11 15 18 17 15 ...
$ eng_disp : num 3.5 1.8 4 2 2 8 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 ...
$ num_cyl : int 6 4 8 4 4 16 8 8 8 8 ...
$ transmission : Factor w/ 7 levels "A","AM","AMS",..: 3 2 6 3 6 3 6 6 6 5 ...
$ num_gears : int 9 6 8 7 8 7 8 8 8 7 ...
$ air_aspired_method : Factor w/ 5 levels "Naturally Aspirated",..: 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 1 3 3 ...
$ regen_brake : Factor w/ 3 levels "","Electrical Regen Brake",..: 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
$ batt_capacity_ah : num 4.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...
$ drive : Factor w/ 5 levels "2-Wheel Drive, Front",..: 4 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 ...
$ fuel_type : Factor w/ 5 levels "Diesel, ultra low sulfur (15 ppm, maximum)",..: 4 3 3 5 3 4 4 4 4 4 ...
$ cyl_deactivate : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 ...
$ variable_valve : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ...
First I need to normalize all the non-factor data and will use the min max method:
maxs <- apply(cars_19[, c(1:3, 5, 8)], 2, max)
mins <- apply(cars_19[, c(1:3, 5, 8)], 2, min)
scaled <- as.data.frame(scale(cars_19[, c(1:3, 5, 8)], center = mins, scale = maxs - mins))
tmp <- data.frame(scaled, cars_19[, c(4, 6, 7, 9:12)])
Neuralnet will not accept a formula like fuel_economy_combined ~. so I need to write out the full model.
n <- names(cars_19)
f <- as.formula(paste("fuel_economy_combined ~", paste(n[!n %in% "fuel_economy_combined"], collapse = " + ")))
Next I need to transform all of the factor variables into binary dummy variables.
m <- model.matrix(f, data = tmp)
m <- as.matrix(data.frame(m, tmp[, 1]))
colnames(m)[28] <- "fuel_economy_combined")
I am going to use the geometric pyramid rule to determine the amount of hidden layers and neurons for each layer. The general rule of thumb is if the data is linearly separable, use one hidden layer and if it is non-linear use two hidden layers. I am going to use two hidden layers as I already know the non-linear svm produced the best model.
r = (INP_num/OUT_num)^(1/3)
HID1_num = OUT_num*(r^2) #number of neurons in the first hidden layer
HID2_num = OUT_num*r #number of neurons in the second hidden layer
This suggests I use two hidden layers with 9 neurons in the first layer and 3 neurons in the second layer. I originally fit the model with this combination but it turned out to overfit. As this is just a suggestion, I found that two hidden layers with 7 and 3 neurons respectively produced the best neural network that did not overfit.
Now I am going to fit a neural network:
set.seed(123)
indices <- sample(1:nrow(cars_19), size = 0.75 * nrow(cars_19))
train <- m[indices,]
test <- m[-indices,]
n <- colnames(m)[2:28]
f <- as.formula(paste("fuel_economy_combined ~", paste(n[!n %in% "fuel_economy_combined"], collapse = " + ")))
m1_nn <- neuralnet(f,
data = train,
hidden = c(7,3),
linear.output = TRUE)
pred_nn <- predict(m1_nn, test)
yhat <-pred_nn * (max(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined) - min(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined)) + min(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined)
y <- test[, 28] * (max(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined) - min(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined)) +min(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined)
postResample(yhat, y)
RMSE Rsquared MAE
2.0036294 0.8688363 1.4894264
I am going to run a 20 fold cross validation to estimate error better as these results are dependent on sample and initialization of the neural network.
set.seed(123)
stats <- NULL
for (i in 1:20) {
indices <- sample(1:nrow(cars_19), size = 0.75 * nrow(cars_19))
train_tmp <- m[indices, ]
test_tmp <- m[-indices, ]
nn_tmp <- neuralnet(f,
data = train_tmp,
hidden = c(7, 3),
linear.output = TRUE)
pred_nn_tmp <- predict(nn_tmp, test_tmp)
yhat <- pred_nn_tmp * (max(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined) - min(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined)) + min(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined)
y <- test_tmp[, 28] * (max(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined) - min(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined)) + min(cars_19$fuel_economy_combined)
stats_tmp <- postResample(yhat, y)
stats <- rbind(stats, stats_tmp)
cat(i, "\n")
}
mean(stats[, 1] ^ 2) #avg mse 4.261991
mean(stats[, 1] ^ 2) ^ .5 #avg rmse 2.064459
colMeans(stats) #ignore rmse
#RMSE Rsquared MAE
#xxx 0.880502 1.466458
The neural network produces a RMSE of 2.06.
Comparison of RMSE:
svm = .93
gradient boosting = 1.8
random forest = 1.9
neural network = 2.06
decision tree = 2.49
mlr = 2.6
R Tensorflow Multiple Linear Regression
In the previous three posts I used multiple linear regression, decision trees, gradient boosting, and support vector machine to predict miles per gallon for 2019 vehicles. It was determined that svm produced the best model. In this post, I am going to run TensorFlow through R and fit a multiple linear regression model using the same data to predict MPG.
Part 1: Multiple Linear Regression using R
There are 1253 vehicles in the cars_19 dataset. I am simply running mlr using Tensorflow for demonstrative purposes as using lm() in R is more efficient and more precise for such a small dataset.
TensorFlow uses an algorithm that is dependent upon convergence whereas R computes the closed form estimates of beta. I will be using 11 features and an intercept so R will be inverting a 12 x 12 matrix which is not computationally expensive with today's technology.
The dataset below of 11 features contains 7 factor variables and 4 numeric variables.
The factors need to be transformed into a format TensorFlow can understand.
Create an input function:
Train, evaluate, predict:
Results are very close to the R closed form estimates:
Part 1: Multiple Linear Regression using R
There are 1253 vehicles in the cars_19 dataset. I am simply running mlr using Tensorflow for demonstrative purposes as using lm() in R is more efficient and more precise for such a small dataset.
TensorFlow uses an algorithm that is dependent upon convergence whereas R computes the closed form estimates of beta. I will be using 11 features and an intercept so R will be inverting a 12 x 12 matrix which is not computationally expensive with today's technology.
The dataset below of 11 features contains 7 factor variables and 4 numeric variables.
str(cars_19)
'data.frame': 1253 obs. of 12 variables:
$ fuel_economy_combined: int 21 28 21 26 28 11 15 18 17 15 ...
$ eng_disp : num 3.5 1.8 4 2 2 8 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.2 ...
$ num_cyl : int 6 4 8 4 4 16 8 8 8 8 ...
$ transmission : Factor w/ 7 levels "A","AM","AMS",..: 3 2 6 3 6 3 6 6 6 5 ...
$ num_gears : int 9 6 8 7 8 7 8 8 8 7 ...
$ air_aspired_method : Factor w/ 5 levels "Naturally Aspirated",..: 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 1 3 3 ...
$ regen_brake : Factor w/ 3 levels "","Electrical Regen Brake",..: 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ...
$ batt_capacity_ah : num 4.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...
$ drive : Factor w/ 5 levels "2-Wheel Drive, Front",..: 4 2 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 ...
$ fuel_type : Factor w/ 5 levels "Diesel, ultra low sulfur (15 ppm, maximum)",..: 4 3 3 5 3 4 4 4 4 4 ...
$ cyl_deactivate : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 ...
$ variable_valve : Factor w/ 2 levels "N","Y": 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ...
The factors need to be transformed into a format TensorFlow can understand.
cols <- feature_columns(
column_numeric(colnames(cars_19[c(2, 3, 5, 8)])),
column_categorical_with_identity("transmission", num_buckets = 7),
column_categorical_with_identity("air_aspired_method", num_buckets = 5),
column_categorical_with_identity("regen_brake", num_buckets = 3),
column_categorical_with_identity("drive", num_buckets = 5),
column_categorical_with_identity("fuel_type", num_buckets = 5),
column_categorical_with_identity("cyl_deactivate", num_buckets = 2),
column_categorical_with_identity("variable_valve", num_buckets = 2)
)
Create an input function:
#input_fn for a given subset of data
cars_19_input_fn <- function(data, num_epochs = 1) {
input_fn(
data,
features = colnames(cars_19[c(2:12)]),
response = "fuel_economy_combined",
batch_size = 64,
num_epochs = num_epochs
)
}
Train, evaluate, predict:
model <- linear_regressor(feature_columns = cols)
set.seed(123)
indices <- sample(1:nrow(cars_19), size = 0.75 * nrow(cars_19))
train <- cars_19[indices, ]
test <- cars_19[-indices, ]
#train model
model %>% train(cars_19_input_fn(train, num_epochs = 1000))
#evaluate model
model %>% evaluate(cars_19_input_fn(test))
#predict
yhat <- model %>% predict(cars_19_input_fn(test))
Results are very close to the R closed form estimates:
postResample(yhat, y)
RMSE Rsquared MAE
2.5583185 0.7891934 1.9381757
R: SVM to Predict MPG for 2019 Vehicles
Continuing on the below post, I am going to use a support vector machine (SVM) to predict combined miles per gallon for all 2019 motor vehicles.
Part 1: Using Decision Trees and Random Forest to Predict MPG for 2019 Vehicles
Part 2: Using Gradient Boosted Machine to Predict MPG for 2019 Vehicles
The raw data is located on the EPA government site
The variables/features I am using for the models are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve.
There are 1253 vehicles in the dataset (does not include pure electric vehicles) summarized below.
Starting with an untuned base model:
Similar to the results for the untuned boosted model. I am going to run a grid search and tune the support vector machine.
The best tuned support vector machine has a cost of 32 and a gamma of .25.
I am going to run this combination:
The tuned support vector machine outperforms the gradient boosted model substantially with a MSE of .87 vs a MSE of 3.25 for the gradient boosted model and a MSE of 3.67 for the random forest.
The model is able to predict 85% of vehicles within 1 MPG of EPA estimate. Considering I am not rounding this is a great result.
The model also does a much better job with outliers as none of the models predicted the Hyundai Ioniq well.
Part 1: Using Decision Trees and Random Forest to Predict MPG for 2019 Vehicles
Part 2: Using Gradient Boosted Machine to Predict MPG for 2019 Vehicles
The raw data is located on the EPA government site
The variables/features I am using for the models are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve.
There are 1253 vehicles in the dataset (does not include pure electric vehicles) summarized below.
fuel_economy_combined eng_disp num_cyl transmission
Min. :11.00 Min. :1.000 Min. : 3.000 A :301
1st Qu.:19.00 1st Qu.:2.000 1st Qu.: 4.000 AM : 46
Median :23.00 Median :3.000 Median : 6.000 AMS: 87
Mean :23.32 Mean :3.063 Mean : 5.533 CVT: 50
3rd Qu.:26.00 3rd Qu.:3.600 3rd Qu.: 6.000 M :148
Max. :58.00 Max. :8.000 Max. :16.000 SA :555
SCV: 66
num_gears air_aspired_method
Min. : 1.000 Naturally Aspirated :523
1st Qu.: 6.000 Other : 5
Median : 7.000 Supercharged : 55
Mean : 7.111 Turbocharged :663
3rd Qu.: 8.000 Turbocharged+Supercharged: 7
Max. :10.000
regen_brake batt_capacity_ah
No :1194 Min. : 0.0000
Electrical Regen Brake: 57 1st Qu.: 0.0000
Hydraulic Regen Brake : 2 Median : 0.0000
Mean : 0.3618
3rd Qu.: 0.0000
Max. :20.0000
drive cyl_deactivate
2-Wheel Drive, Front :345 Y: 172
2-Wheel Drive, Rear :345 N:1081
4-Wheel Drive :174
All Wheel Drive :349
Part-time 4-Wheel Drive: 40
fuel_type
Diesel, ultra low sulfur (15 ppm, maximum): 28
Gasoline (Mid Grade Unleaded Recommended) : 16
Gasoline (Premium Unleaded Recommended) :298
Gasoline (Premium Unleaded Required) :320
Gasoline (Regular Unleaded Recommended) :591
variable_valve
N: 38
Y:1215
Starting with an untuned base model:
set.seed(123)
m_svm_untuned <- svm(formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ .,
data = test)
pred_svm_untuned <- predict(m_svm_untuned, test)
yhat <- pred_svm_untuned
y <- test$fuel_economy_combined
svm_stats_untuned <- postResample(yhat, y)
svm_stats_untuned
RMSE Rsquared MAE
2.3296249 0.8324886 1.4964907
Similar to the results for the untuned boosted model. I am going to run a grid search and tune the support vector machine.
hyper_grid <- expand.grid(
cost = 2^seq(-5,5,1),
gamma= 2^seq(-5,5,1)
)
e <- NULL
for(j in 1:nrow(hyper_grid)){
set.seed(123)
m_svm_untuned <- svm(
formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ .,
data = train,
gamma = hyper_grid$gamma[j],
cost = hyper_grid$cost[j]
)
pred_svm_untuned <-predict(
m_svm_untuned,
newdata = test
)
yhat <- pred_svm_untuned
y <- test$fuel_economy_combined
e[j] <- postResample(yhat, y)[1]
cat(j, "\n")
}
which.min(e) #minimum MSE
The best tuned support vector machine has a cost of 32 and a gamma of .25.
I am going to run this combination:
set.seed(123)
m_svm_tuned <- svm(
formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ .,
data = test,
gamma = .25,
cost = 32,
scale=TRUE
)
pred_svm_tuned <- predict(m_svm_tuned,test)
yhat<-pred_svm_tuned
y<-test$fuel_economy_combined
svm_stats<-postResample(yhat,y)
svm_stats
RMSE Rsquared MAE
0.9331948 0.9712492 0.7133039
The tuned support vector machine outperforms the gradient boosted model substantially with a MSE of .87 vs a MSE of 3.25 for the gradient boosted model and a MSE of 3.67 for the random forest.
summary(m_svm_tuned)
Call:
svm(formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ ., data = test, gamma = 0.25, cost = 32, scale = TRUE)
Parameters:
SVM-Type: eps-regression
SVM-Kernel: radial
cost: 32
gamma: 0.25
epsilon: 0.1
Number of Support Vectors: 232
sum(abs(res)<=1) / 314
[1] 0.8503185 The model is able to predict 85% of vehicles within 1 MPG of EPA estimate. Considering I am not rounding this is a great result.
The model also does a much better job with outliers as none of the models predicted the Hyundai Ioniq well.
tmp[which(abs(res) > svm_stats[1] * 3), ] #what cars are 3 se residuals
Division Carline fuel_economy_combined pred_svm_tuned
641 HYUNDAI MOTOR COMPANY Ioniq 55 49.01012
568 TOYOTA CAMRY XSE 26 22.53976
692 Volkswagen Arteon 4Motion 23 26.45806
984 Volkswagen Atlas 19 22.23552
R: Gradient Boosted Machine to Predict MPG for 2019 Vehicles
Continuing on the below post, I am going to use a gradient boosted machine model to predict combined miles per gallon for all 2019 motor vehicles.
Part 1: Using Decision Trees and Random Forest to Predict MPG for 2019 Vehicles
The raw data is located on the EPA government site
The variables/features I am using for the models are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve.
There are 1253 vehicles in the dataset (does not include pure electric vehicles) summarized below.
Starting with an untuned base model:
The untuned GBM model performs better than the multiple linear regression model, but worse than the random forest.
I am going to tune the GBM by running a grid search:
The hyper grid is 42 rows which is all combinations of shrinkage and interaction depths specified above.
After running the grid search, it is apparent that there is overfitting. This is something to be very careful about. I am going to run a 5 fold cross validation to estimate out of bag error vs MSE. After running the 5 fold CV, this is the best model that does not overfit:
The fitted black curve above is MSE and the fitted green curve is the out of bag estimated error. 1183 is the optimal amount of iterations.
The tuned gradient boosted model performs better than the random forest with a MSE of 3.25 vs 3.67 for the random forest.
50% of the predictions are within 1 MPG of the EPA Government Estimate.
The largest residuals are exotics and a hybrid which are the more unique data points in the dataset.
Part 1: Using Decision Trees and Random Forest to Predict MPG for 2019 Vehicles
The raw data is located on the EPA government site
The variables/features I am using for the models are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve.
There are 1253 vehicles in the dataset (does not include pure electric vehicles) summarized below.
fuel_economy_combined eng_disp num_cyl transmission
Min. :11.00 Min. :1.000 Min. : 3.000 A :301
1st Qu.:19.00 1st Qu.:2.000 1st Qu.: 4.000 AM : 46
Median :23.00 Median :3.000 Median : 6.000 AMS: 87
Mean :23.32 Mean :3.063 Mean : 5.533 CVT: 50
3rd Qu.:26.00 3rd Qu.:3.600 3rd Qu.: 6.000 M :148
Max. :58.00 Max. :8.000 Max. :16.000 SA :555
SCV: 66
num_gears air_aspired_method
Min. : 1.000 Naturally Aspirated :523
1st Qu.: 6.000 Other : 5
Median : 7.000 Supercharged : 55
Mean : 7.111 Turbocharged :663
3rd Qu.: 8.000 Turbocharged+Supercharged: 7
Max. :10.000
regen_brake batt_capacity_ah
No :1194 Min. : 0.0000
Electrical Regen Brake: 57 1st Qu.: 0.0000
Hydraulic Regen Brake : 2 Median : 0.0000
Mean : 0.3618
3rd Qu.: 0.0000
Max. :20.0000
drive cyl_deactivate
2-Wheel Drive, Front :345 Y: 172
2-Wheel Drive, Rear :345 N:1081
4-Wheel Drive :174
All Wheel Drive :349
Part-time 4-Wheel Drive: 40
fuel_type
Diesel, ultra low sulfur (15 ppm, maximum): 28
Gasoline (Mid Grade Unleaded Recommended) : 16
Gasoline (Premium Unleaded Recommended) :298
Gasoline (Premium Unleaded Required) :320
Gasoline (Regular Unleaded Recommended) :591
variable_valve
N: 38
Y:1215
Starting with an untuned base model:
trees <- 1200
m_boosted_reg_untuned <- gbm(
formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ .,
data = train,
n.trees = trees,
distribution = "gaussian"
)
> summary(m_boosted_reg_untuned)
var rel.inf
eng_disp eng_disp 41.26273684
batt_capacity_ah batt_capacity_ah 24.53458898
transmission transmission 11.33253784
drive drive 8.59300859
regen_brake regen_brake 8.17877824
air_aspired_method air_aspired_method 2.11397865
num_gears num_gears 1.90999021
fuel_type fuel_type 1.65692562
num_cyl num_cyl 0.22260369
variable_valve variable_valve 0.11043532
cyl_deactivate cyl_deactivate 0.08441602
> boosted_stats_untuned
RMSE Rsquared MAE
2.4262643 0.8350367 1.7513331
The untuned GBM model performs better than the multiple linear regression model, but worse than the random forest.
I am going to tune the GBM by running a grid search:
#create hyperparameter grid
hyper_grid <- expand.grid(
shrinkage = seq(.07, .12, .01),
interaction.depth = 1:7,
optimal_trees = 0,
min_RMSE = 0
)
#grid search
for (i in 1:nrow(hyper_grid)) {
set.seed(123)
gbm.tune <- gbm(
formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ .,
data = train_random,
distribution = "gaussian",
n.trees = 5000,
interaction.depth = hyper_grid$interaction.depth[i],
shrinkage = hyper_grid$shrinkage[i],
)
hyper_grid$optimal_trees[i] <- which.min(gbm.tune$train.error)
hyper_grid$min_RMSE[i] <- sqrt(min(gbm.tune$train.error))
cat(i, "\n")
}
The hyper grid is 42 rows which is all combinations of shrinkage and interaction depths specified above.
> head(hyper_grid)
shrinkage interaction.depth optimal_trees min_RMSE
1 0.07 1 0 0
2 0.08 1 0 0
3 0.09 1 0 0
4 0.10 1 0 0
5 0.11 1 0 0
6 0.12 1 0 0 After running the grid search, it is apparent that there is overfitting. This is something to be very careful about. I am going to run a 5 fold cross validation to estimate out of bag error vs MSE. After running the 5 fold CV, this is the best model that does not overfit:
> m_boosted_reg <- gbm(
formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ .,
data = train,
n.trees = trees,
distribution = "gaussian",
shrinkage = .09,
cv.folds = 5,
interaction.depth = 5
)
best.iter <- gbm.perf(m_boosted_reg, method = "cv")
pred_boosted_reg_ <- predict(m_boosted_reg,n.trees=1183, newdata = test)
mse_boosted_reg_ <- RMSE(pred = pred_boosted_reg, obs = test$fuel_economy_combined) ^2
boosted_stats<-postResample(pred_boosted_reg,test$fuel_economy_combined)
The fitted black curve above is MSE and the fitted green curve is the out of bag estimated error. 1183 is the optimal amount of iterations.
> pred_boosted_reg <- predict(m_boosted_reg,n.trees=1183, newdata = test)
> mse_boosted_reg <- RMSE(pred = pred_boosted_reg, obs = test$fuel_economy_combined) ^2
> boosted_stats<-postResample(pred_boosted_reg,test$fuel_economy_combined)
> boosted_stats
RMSE Rsquared MAE
1.8018793 0.9092727 1.3334459
> mse_boosted_reg
3.246769
The tuned gradient boosted model performs better than the random forest with a MSE of 3.25 vs 3.67 for the random forest.
> summary(res)
Min. 1st Qu. Median Mean 3rd Qu. Max.
-5.40000 -0.90000 0.00000 0.07643 1.10000 9.10000
50% of the predictions are within 1 MPG of the EPA Government Estimate.
The largest residuals are exotics and a hybrid which are the more unique data points in the dataset.
> tmp[which(abs(res) > boosted_stats[1] * 3), ]
Division Carline fuel_economy_combined pred_boosted_reg
642 HYUNDAI MOTOR COMPANY Ioniq Blue 58 48.5
482 KIA MOTORS CORPORATION Forte FE 35 28.7
39 Lamborghini Aventador Coupe 11 17.2
40 Lamborghini Aventador Roadster 11 17.2
R: MLR, Decision Trees and Random Forest to Predict MPG for 2019 Vehicles
I am going to use regression, decision trees, and the random forest algorithm to predict combined miles per gallon for all 2019 motor vehicles. The raw data is located on the EPA government site
After preliminary diagnostics, exploration and cleaning I am going to start with a multiple linear regression model.
The variables/features I am using for the models are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve.
There are 1253 vehicles in the dataset (does not include pure electric vehicles) summarized below.
The fitted MSE is 6.8 and predicted MSE of 6.83. Some of the below residuals are too large. The extreme large residual is a Hyundai Ioniq which none of the models predict very well as it is unique vehicle (versus the other data points).
Let's try a decision tree regression model.
After tuning the decision tree the predicted MSE is 6.20 which is better than the regression model.
Finally let's try a random forest model. The random forest should produce the best model as it will attempt to remove some of the correlation within the decision tree structure.
The error stabilizes at 250 trees. randomForest() by default uses 500 trees which is unnecessary.
After tuning the random forest the model has the lowest fitted and predicted MSE of 3.67 which is substantially better than the MSE of the decision tree 6.2
The random forest also has an r-squared of .9
Engine size, number of cylinders, and transmission type are the largest contributors to accuracy.
After preliminary diagnostics, exploration and cleaning I am going to start with a multiple linear regression model.
The variables/features I am using for the models are: Engine displacement (size), number of cylinders, transmission type, number of gears, air inspired method, regenerative braking type, battery capacity Ah, drivetrain, fuel type, cylinder deactivate, and variable valve.
There are 1253 vehicles in the dataset (does not include pure electric vehicles) summarized below.
fuel_economy_combined eng_disp num_cyl transmission
Min. :11.00 Min. :1.000 Min. : 3.000 A :301
1st Qu.:19.00 1st Qu.:2.000 1st Qu.: 4.000 AM : 46
Median :23.00 Median :3.000 Median : 6.000 AMS: 87
Mean :23.32 Mean :3.063 Mean : 5.533 CVT: 50
3rd Qu.:26.00 3rd Qu.:3.600 3rd Qu.: 6.000 M :148
Max. :58.00 Max. :8.000 Max. :16.000 SA :555
SCV: 66
num_gears air_aspired_method
Min. : 1.000 Naturally Aspirated :523
1st Qu.: 6.000 Other : 5
Median : 7.000 Supercharged : 55
Mean : 7.111 Turbocharged :663
3rd Qu.: 8.000 Turbocharged+Supercharged: 7
Max. :10.000
regen_brake batt_capacity_ah
No :1194 Min. : 0.0000
Electrical Regen Brake: 57 1st Qu.: 0.0000
Hydraulic Regen Brake : 2 Median : 0.0000
Mean : 0.3618
3rd Qu.: 0.0000
Max. :20.0000
drive cyl_deactivate
2-Wheel Drive, Front :345 Y: 172
2-Wheel Drive, Rear :345 N:1081
4-Wheel Drive :174
All Wheel Drive :349
Part-time 4-Wheel Drive: 40
fuel_type
Diesel, ultra low sulfur (15 ppm, maximum): 28
Gasoline (Mid Grade Unleaded Recommended) : 16
Gasoline (Premium Unleaded Recommended) :298
Gasoline (Premium Unleaded Required) :320
Gasoline (Regular Unleaded Recommended) :591
variable_valve
N: 38
Y:1215
Call:
lm(formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ eng_disp + transmission +
num_gears + air_aspired_method + regen_brake + batt_capacity_ah +
drive + fuel_type + cyl_deactivate + variable_valve, data = cars_19)
Residuals:
Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
-12.7880 -1.6012 0.1102 1.6116 17.3181
Coefficients:
Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
(Intercept) 36.05642 0.82585 43.660 < 2e-16 ***
eng_disp -2.79257 0.08579 -32.550 < 2e-16 ***
transmissionAM 2.74053 0.44727 6.127 1.20e-09 ***
transmissionAMS 0.73943 0.34554 2.140 0.032560 *
transmissionCVT 6.83932 0.62652 10.916 < 2e-16 ***
transmissionM 1.08359 0.31706 3.418 0.000652 ***
transmissionSA 0.63231 0.22435 2.818 0.004903 **
transmissionSCV 2.73768 0.40176 6.814 1.48e-11 ***
num_gears 0.21496 0.07389 2.909 0.003691 **
air_aspired_methodOther -2.70781 1.99491 -1.357 0.174916
air_aspired_methodSupercharged -1.62171 0.42210 -3.842 0.000128 ***
air_aspired_methodTurbocharged -1.79047 0.22084 -8.107 1.24e-15 ***
air_aspired_methodTurbocharged+Supercharged -1.68028 1.04031 -1.615 0.106532
regen_brakeElectrical Regen Brake 12.59523 0.90030 13.990 < 2e-16 ***
regen_brakeHydraulic Regen Brake 6.69040 1.94379 3.442 0.000597 ***
batt_capacity_ah -0.47689 0.11838 -4.028 5.96e-05 ***
drive2-Wheel Drive, Rear -2.54806 0.24756 -10.293 < 2e-16 ***
drive4-Wheel Drive -3.14862 0.29649 -10.620 < 2e-16 ***
driveAll Wheel Drive -3.12875 0.22300 -14.030 < 2e-16 ***
drivePart-time 4-Wheel Drive -3.94765 0.46909 -8.415 < 2e-16 ***
fuel_typeGasoline (Mid Grade Unleaded Recommended) -5.54594 0.97450 -5.691 1.58e-08 ***
fuel_typeGasoline (Premium Unleaded Recommended) -5.44412 0.70009 -7.776 1.57e-14 ***
fuel_typeGasoline (Premium Unleaded Required) -6.01955 0.70542 -8.533 < 2e-16 ***
fuel_typeGasoline (Regular Unleaded Recommended) -6.43743 0.68767 -9.361 < 2e-16 ***
cyl_deactivateY 0.52100 0.27109 1.922 0.054851 .
variable_valveY 2.00533 0.59508 3.370 0.000775 ***
---
Signif. codes: 0 ‘***’ 0.001 ‘**’ 0.01 ‘*’ 0.05 ‘.’ 0.1 ‘ ’ 1
standard error: 2.608 on 1227 degrees of freedom
Multiple R-squared: 0.8104, Adjusted R-squared: 0.8066
F-statistic: 209.8 on 25 and 1227 DF, p-value: < 2.2e-16 The fitted MSE is 6.8 and predicted MSE of 6.83. Some of the below residuals are too large. The extreme large residual is a Hyundai Ioniq which none of the models predict very well as it is unique vehicle (versus the other data points).
#regression tree full
m_reg_tree_full <- rpart(formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ .,
data = train,
method = "anova",)
#regression tree tuned
m_reg_tree_trimmed <- rpart(
formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ .,
data = train,
method = "anova",
control = list(minsplit = 10, cp = .0005)
)
#rpart.plot(m_reg_tree_full)
plotcp(m_reg_tree_full)
pred_decision_tree_full <- predict(m_reg_tree_full, newdata = test)
mse_tree_full <- RMSE(pred = pred_decision_tree_full, obs = test$fuel_economy_combined) ^2
pred_decision_tree_trimmed <- predict(m_reg_tree_trimmed, newdata = test)
mse_tree_trimmed <- RMSE(pred = pred_decision_tree_trimmed, obs = test$fuel_economy_combined) ^2
plotcp(m_reg_tree_trimmed)
Finally let's try a random forest model. The random forest should produce the best model as it will attempt to remove some of the correlation within the decision tree structure.
#random forest
m_random_forest_full <-randomForest(formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ ., data = train)
predict_random_forest_full <- predict(m_random_forest_full, newdata = test)
mse_random_forest_full <- RMSE(pred = predict_random_forest_full, obs = test$fuel_economy_combined) ^ 2
which.min(m_random_forest_full$mse)
#random forest tuned
m_random_forest <- randomForest(formula = fuel_economy_combined ~ ., data = train, ntree = 250)
plot(m_random_forest)
predict_random_forest <- predict(m_random_forest, newdata = test)
mse_random_forest <- RMSE(pred = predict_random_forest, obs = test$fuel_economy_combined) ^ 2
plot(tmp$test.fuel_economy_combined - tmp$r.predict_random_forrest., ylab = "residuals",main = "Random Forest")
varImpPlot(m_random_forest)
The error stabilizes at 250 trees. randomForest() by default uses 500 trees which is unnecessary.
The random forest also has an r-squared of .9
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